100 Years of Climate Change
Have You ever wondered how climate change alters nature but couldn’t find an answer?
Now you can.
100 Years of Climate Change is century-spanning photographic dialogue between images taken a century ago and today in exact same locations in Northern Finland and Northern Norway. I retraced research expeditions conducted a hundred years ago and compared the photographs taken then with those I took now from precisely the same locations.
Finnish geologist and photographer Erkki Mikkola extensively photographed the landscapes of present-day Finnish Lapland with a panoramic camera in the 1920s and 1930s. Mikkola’s photographs have been archived at the Finnish Heritage Agency, digitized, and made freely available through the Finna search service (finna.fi). These panoramic photographs captured Lapland a hundred years ago, showcasing landscapes where the effects of climate change have become visible over the past century.
I set out on Mikkola’s footsteps. Along the way I found many more photographs from Mikkola’s era even earlier. I followed where ever they went, photographed the same locations and witnessed climate change and biodiversity crisis first hand in the most remote corners of European nature.
In 2022-2024 I re-photographed approximately 200 photograhs taken between 1882–1963, most of them taken in late 1920s and early 1930s. Here are 25 of those images.
Antti Haataja
To view touch the image with the cursor to see before and after images depicting changes in nature during the last 100 years.
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Vegetation growth at the edge of treeline. Birch trees have grown much taller hiding the landscape along an esker over arctic lakes in the most northern part of Finland. A direct consequense of increased thermal sum. Luomusharju, Utsjoki Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1931. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2023.
Change in treeline tree community stucture. Snowy seasons become shorter as snow cover falls later and melts earlier. Especially snowbeds disappear. This however changes the plant community as arctic plants loose their ecological niche. Plants accustomed to milder conditions climb up the fells to higher elevations. This is the north facing slope of Aakenustunturi at tree line. In the after image look at the right lower corner for Scotch pine sapling. If you now compare the tree community on the hill you will see that in the 1930's the treeline consisted of Birch and Norway spruce. It is now dominated by Scotch pine. Aakenustunturi, Kolari Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1932. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2022.
Some species are better able to follow the moving climate zones. Whether a species follows the leading edge or the trailing edge of its climate niche is an important indicator of its capability to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change. Scotch pines are early succession trees following the leading edge of its climate zone advansing towards north. Scotch pines are advancing towards north and up the fells all over Lapland faster than any other tree. The last decade has seen the number of Scotch pine saplings skyrocket above what was once the treeline in the fells. The Scotch pine seen in the after image are however from earlier warmer periods after 1930. Pallas-Yllästunturi national park, Muonio Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1932. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2024.
Arctic greening. Look at the rocks in before and after images. They slowly disappear under vegetation. That phenomena is called shrubification. Woody plants e.g. Dwarf birch, Willow and Bilberry gain ground and grow larger. They in part suffocate other more specialist arctic plants and because they are dark and grow taller they also absorb sunlight and thus decrease albedo especially in spring time once they are revealed from under snow. This contributes to the increase in thermal sum and thus climate change. The advancing Scotch pines can be seen in this image. They have gained approximately 150 meters of altitude on this fell 420 meters high and already grow on the top of the fell. Fells are defined as ’treeless on the top’. By definition Finland – the Arctic – is going to loose many of its fells during the next century. Otsamo, Inari Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1933. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2023.
The vegetation has become denser and more lush. Similar development in forest lushness and density can be seen universally in forests in Northern Finland. These images demonstrate how this phenomena also extends to the forest edges over bodies of water. This is also a universal phenomena in Northern Finland. It is possible that in the before image the vegetation especially on the left has been partly kept more open by grazing by cows. In between when these images were taken the river has been cleared for log driving and later restored. Aakenusjoki, Kittilä Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1932. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2022.
Landscape modification: clearing of rapids for log driving. Mainly in the 1950s and 1960s Finland cleared approximately 40 000 km of rapids to enable driving of logs downstream for forest industry. This had devastating effects on aquatic ecosystems. The before and after image shows how a rapid was cleared: the river channel was made deeper, narrower and the bend was straightened. This led to decrease of water surface and decrease of heterogeneity of water flow speeds. Less water surface leads to degrease in fish production. That in combination to homogenisation of water flow speed leads to decrease in species richness. Overall habitat structure becomes homogenous and less productive. E.g. salmonids spawning grounds were lost but also primary habitats for many species none less more important than Freshwater pearl mussel. In 2024 just 6 km upstream from this location the largest known severe aggravated nature conservation offense in Finland’s history was revealed by coinsidence. A feller machine drove over this river up to hundred times directly destroying thousands of protected Freshwater pearl mussel. A subcontractor to one of the major Finnish forest companies broke law and regulations in purpose for economic gains. In addition to direct destruction of these animals their very important primary habitat was severely degraded kilometers downstream due to deterioration of water quality. Finland has 1,3 to 1,4 million kilometres of drainage ditches dug to make the land more suitable for tree cultivation and they drain muddy water into Finland’s streams, rivers and tens of thousands lakes. Pristine high quality water streams are scarce and one of the most important Freshwater pearl mussel habitats in Finland was severely damaged. When Leväkoski rapid, which you see in this image, was cleared, its Freshwater pearl mussel habitat was lost. The endangered (IUCN) Freshwater pearl mussel can live up to 300 years old, breeds very slowly and young Freshwater pearl mussel are especially vulnerable to decline in water quality. Now another Freshwater pearl mussel habitat was deteriorated. This is slow extinction. Single acts separated by decades even centuries. Hukkajoki, Suomussalmi Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1938. Kainuun museon kokoelma, Kainuun museo. After: Antti Haataja 2024.
Relatively untouched river ecosystem. A lush Marsh marigold (Caltha palustris) growth in the before image with next to no forest alteration upstream. Modest forest alteration upstream in present day. Reason for changes in the river vegetation unknown. Ylä-Naruskajoki, Salla Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1933. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2024.
At first one notices the tree growth and incease in abundance. But as one looks closer and longer one also notices how tree age diversity has changed. Namely old, dead and especially fallen trees have become scarcer. Before this place became a national park in 1983 some of the dead trees might have been used as valuable building material. In fact cottage building boom depleted Finnish Lapland from available dead standing pine in early 2000s. This place is also close to popular outdoor trails both leading deeper into the national park and also close enough for day trips. The tradition of burning dead tar and thus energy rich trees and their roots in campfires runs deep in culture. Both of these usage of dead trees have left their mark even in otherwise unmanaged forests of the north. Generation of new old trees is very slow relative to average human life span since a Scotch pine can stand hundreds of years dead on its feet until it falls to the ground and can last there another few hundred years. A seemingly slow usage of them can in the long run accumulate and lead the depletion of their stock. Since many species of old growth forest are directly dependent on old and dead trees this leads to species richness and abundance decline. Urho Kekkonen national park, Inari Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1929. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2024.
The most popular hiking trail in Finland runs from Hetta to Pallas in Pallas-Yllästunturi national park one of the first two national parks established in Finland in 1938. Here a hiker heads south on top of Pyhäkero towards Taivaskero seen in the middle of the image in 30 km distanse as crow flies and the end of the trail behind it. The primary function of Finnish national park system is to protect nature for recreation and landscape conservation. Their primary goal is thus not to protect species in these national parks. This is how their purpose has been phrased in legal text. Infrastructure such as the Finnish open hut system and well maintained trails attract people. Events such as trail running competitions and new technology such as electronic bikes increase recreation intensity and it is well documented that this causes disturbance to wildlife. Many national parks including Pallas-Yllästunturi are oddly shaped. Pallas-Yllästunturi is the third largest national park in Finland and it is very long yet quite narrow. It is accessble from multiple locations and the Hetta-Pallas trail rans in its heart through its distance. The cocktail effect is that especially large and shy wild mammals and birds don’t necessarily benefit from national parks in the sense that wider public believes. Recreation leaves marks and the more people the heavier the footprint. Pallas-Yllästunturi national park, Enontekiö Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1932. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2024.
Drowned. This is river Kitinen before and after the erection of Porttipahta reservoir for hyrdopower production. The before image is now located 300 meters left of the left corner of the after image 30 meters below water surface. The power plant is located 450 km upstream from the river mouth in the Kemijoki watershed extending over 51 000 square kilometers. This is the northernmost hydropowerplant in Kemijoki watershed. The first of many hydroplants in the watershed is located right in the river mouth at the Bay of Bothnia. Hydropower plants block migratory fish migration routes. Among others Atlantic salmon habitat and individuals were lost from over half of Lapland at one strike. Kitinen river at Porttipahta reservoir, Sodankylä Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1930. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2023.
The most important Atlantic salmon river in Europe is no more. In 1964 the first of 21 hyrdopower plants was build at the Kemijoki rivermouth blocking the migratory route upstream for spawning Atlantic salmon. Over night the most important Atlantic salmon population in Europe was lost and migratory fish ecosystem larger in size than the Netherlands, Switzerland, Denmark, Slovakia or Costa Rica collapsed. State owned power company has made no serious effort to revive migratory fish populations but instead prevent the efforts. The before image shows how prior to harnessing for production Kemijoki was a large slowly flowing river. The river banks show signs of erosion from differences in water volume in the basin. Typically in spring Kemijoki would flood from snow melt all the way up 550 km from the fells of Lapland. Since erection of the hydropowerplants and their dams Kemijoki is more like a chain of slowly flowing lakes from one powerplant to the next. Melt waters are now stored in two reservoirs build upstream for later power generation and floods are now contained to prevent economic damage to residencies and business build on flood vulnerable properties and also to maximize economic gains from electricity production – when snow melt and rainfall were once drivers for water volume in the basin demand and price for electricity are better indicators for water level now. But at the same time the ecological qualities of Kemijoki are lost. The location is Pekkala village 65 km upstream from Rovaniemi. In the before image one can see how logs are run downstream. Industrial scale logging began in the end of the 19th century in Lapland and prior to roads the main transportation method was via rivers. Kemijoki, Rovaniemi Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1933. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2024.
Rukatunturi in 1936 and 2023. The small dot against the sky in the image in 2023 is a Peregrine falcon mother soaring from the skies over her nesting cliff. Between 1936 and 2023 Peregrine falcon went to near extinction in Finland due to environmental chemicals. After the ban of DDT and PCB this falcon bounced back and in early 2020s its siluette was again found on the skies of one the most popular winter sport centers in Finland. A stark reminder how in just a few decades we almost managed to wipe out this iconic bird but a small glimmer of hope amids global environmental and climate turmoil. Ruka, Kuusamo Finland. Before: Pietinen 1936. Historian kuvakokoelma Valokuvaamo Pietisen kokoelma Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2023.
Loss of palsa mires. Palsa mires are bogs with a large ice lens inside the peat. Thus their pronounced shape. During the winter the palsas freeze inside and the summer temperatures and summer duration are not enough to bite through the insulating peat. With climate change permafrost thaws. Also does the ice lenses and frost inside the palsa mires. Once the palsa cores melt the palsas collapse. This can be seen in the after image. Unlike most of the images in this project only 60 years separate this pair of before-after image. Palsa mires are vanishing in front of our eyes. Finland holds most palsa mires in Fennoscandia and their future looks bleak. The before image is taken slightly more from the left than the after image. The palsa however is gone as can be seen. Iitto, Enontekiö Finland. Before: K. Itävuo 1963. Metsähallituksen kokoelma, Lusto - Suomen Metsämuseo. After: Antti Haataja 2024.
Industrial use of wilderness areas. The before image shows a pristine boreal forest. The after image shows an industrial development. First there is industrial scale logging. The harvested area on the hill on the left is 47 ha alone. Another 28 ha is visible just under the hill where this image was taken. One can see a forest road in the valley. Rocks and sand for its construction are extracted from a quarry visible on the left corner of the image. Behind the road lays another 20 ha of clear cuts. The valley alone holds close to 100 ha of clear cuts, a quarry and a forest road. Logging expands beyond the image borders. Second an industrial scale wind power park is planned here. This hill where we stand as well as the one seen on the left and the ones behind it and behind them and so on would hold 150 to 200 wind power plants rising to 320 meters. The power plants would bring infrastructure e.g. roads, high voltage power lines and maintenance areas. Both the felling of the trees and wind power park are industrial development in Värriö common forest – a system in which forests are owned and managed in joint ownership. In other words private forest ownership. This area is a green corridor between Central-Europe/Russia and Sweden/Norway. This is also one of the most remote taiga forests in Finland. The sharp peak in the distance is Sorsatunturi and Russian border is behind it. Salla Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1933. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2024.
Treeline rising little over 1 meter per year during the last almost century. The prominence of the Nuvvus fell is 260 meters from the river. Approximating from the images the treeline has risen 100 meters in 86 years. Just over one meter a year. There is even an earlier image from the same spot dating back to year 1901 (not shown here). In that time span from 1901 to 1938 (in 37 years time span) there is no distinguishable change in the elevation of the treeline. The effects of climate change are not linear since the beginning of the last century but lean towards the present. Nuvvos Ailegas, Utsjoki Finland. Before: Niilo Tuura 1938. Historian kuvakokoelma, Niilo Tuuran kokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2024.
Reindeer overgrazing vol 1. A scene towards Kevo strict nature reserve in the background. The before image reveals a thick layer of reindeer lichen in the groung. The after image shows how it has been consumed and trampled to ground. This is a result of too large reindeer count for the pastures. This area is managed by an indigenous Sápmi reindeer herding cooperative. Kevo, Utsjoki Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1931. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2023.
Reindeer overgrazing vol 2. The before and after images demonstrate a complete loss reindeer lichen but also increase in shrubs. Reindeer herding is often claimed to mitigate climate change by reducing shrubification but in my expeditions and images shrubification is seen all over reindeer management area of Finland. The loss of lichen is universal to reindeer management area and in fact all reindeer herding cooperatives in Finland rely on supplementary feeding of reindeer during the winter because of poor winter pasture qualities which are indicated by loss of lichen. Early indication from studies in Yamal peninsula reindeer management area reveal that the reindeer count in Finnish Lapland should be several fold larger to present day to have a significant effect on shrubification. This area is managed by an indigenous Sápmi reindeer herding cooperative. Menesjärvi, Inari Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1934. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2023.
Reindeer overgrazing vol 3. The largest reindeer herding cooperative in Finland both by reindeer count and by land area. The disappearance of reindeer lichen from the taiga forest floor is visible. On the left on the after image one can see overall shrubification of a swamp area and its edges. This is former Wild forest reindeer (Rangifer tarandus fennicus) habitat – a species that was killed to extinction in Lapland in 1920s when the last individuals in this area and in Enontekiö were killed. Wild forest reindeer is a species of old growth untouched taiga forests. Before tame reindeer herding Finland was Wild forest reindeer habitat and wild forest reindeer still live in Finland but south of the reindeer management area, which covers over 120 000 square kilometers in the North of Finland. A fence runs half way through Finland to keep Wild forest reindeer and Tame reindeer separate. Tame reindeer outnumber Wild forest reindeer approximately 100:1. Tame reindeer are kept for meat: around 100 000 are slaughtered each year by man. Tame reindeer in Lapland have lost their ability to survive in nature with apex predators. Thus all the Grey wolves and Lynx are exterminated from Lapland, Wolverine and Brown bear are hunted and poached. Just behind the swamp on the left in the image in fall 2023 a family of 5 Grey wolves were shot in quick succession from a helicopter by reindeer herders in the middle of the second largest national park of Finland. Since the 1960s and the invention of snowmobiles people have had complete control of the wildlife even in the most remote areas. In that time span Lapland has lost 5 of its 6 largest wild mammals. Only Moose still exists here in ecologically significant numbers. Studies show strong evidence that such simplication of natural dynamics will have significant effects on the whole ecosystem not least its resilience. Resilience on the other hand is recognised an important factor in ecosystems ability to cope with changes. In a sense this land has become void of ”wild”. This area is managed by a Finnish reindeer herding cooperative. The sharp fell in the background is Korvatunturi, home of Santa Claus. Urho Kekkonen national park, Savukoski Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1932. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2023.
Sallivaara historical Sapmi reindeer roundup corral. Sallivaara was in use until 1964 and is now a Sapmi cultural heritage area. Lemmenjoki national park, Inari Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1933. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2024.
From top of Finland towards Norway. A high fell plateau. Loss of cryosphere (snow and ice) reduces albedo (the reflection of sunlight back to Space) increases thermal sum and warming in the Arctic. With climate change the snowy season becomes shorter. Persistent snow cover falls later and melts earlier. Note: the exact image locations are separated by 2,7 kilometers. How ever the landscape in the background is the same although viewed from slightly different angles. The after image is taken from the highest point of Finland in the most Nortwestern corner of Lapland. Halti, Enontekiö Finland. Before: T.I. Haataja 1923. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2011.
From 1906 to 2018 Sydbreen glacier has withdrawn 1,2 km and shrank at least 30 m at the glacier plateau as approximated from these before and after images. Vestbreen glacier (on the right) has withdrawn revealing a rocky couloir. Midtbreen glacier (in the middle) is no more connected to Sydbreen (the glacier massive on the left). Note: the after image is taken with a drone from the rocky mountain shoulder next to river bend in the before image. Lyngsdalen, Tromsø Norway. Before: Väinö Tanner 1906. Geologian tutkimuskeskus. After: Antti Haataja 2018.
Persistent snow patches disappear as arctic summers get warmer. The before image was photographed over a month later in the summer a century ago but during the very warm summer of 2024 the same persistent snow patch was half the size over a month earlier. 14th of August 1906 vs. 9th of July 2024. Satellite images reveal that all of the snow in the couloir had melted by July 27th in 2024. Loss of persistent summer snow reduces the availability of water at lower elevations and the duration of water availability through out summer. Before: Pentti Eskola 1906. Geologian tutkimuskeskus. After: Antti Haataja 2024.
A scenery towards northeast from the top of the highest fell of northeastern Norway. Summers 1938 and 2014 were both warmer than the average summer temperatures for 1991–2020 in the north. Significant changes are hard to detect due to insufficient resolutions of historical images. However the before after images show how persistent snow patches are located in the same place year after year. A large wind power park covering a 63 square kilometers area is planned to the left corner of the image. This mountain plateau is the second largest untouched mountain plateau in Norway. The area is an important Sapmi culture heritage area. Rásttigáisá (1066 meters above sea level), Finnmark Norway. Before: Niilo Tuura 1938. Historian kuvakokoelma, Niilo Tuuran kokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2014.
Bark beetle in a national landscape. At first not that much seems to have changed, we are looking into a distant landscape after all. Trees have grown taller but this we have already observer through out Finland. But look at the macrolevel tree structure composition. Deciduous trees were dominant in the 1930s on the Ipatti hill seen in the middle of the image (the hill in the sunlight in the after image). Yet now Norway spruce is the dominant tree. Historical aerial imaginary reveal that before Koli became a national park in 1991 much of the trees on the eastern slope (in the image) of Ipatti were cut in the 1970s. The intensive forest management for industrial gains for much of the 20th century saw Norway spruce more valuable than the lesser valued deciduous trees and Norway spruce was favoured for tree planting after a harvest. This monoculture practise took place commonly also in places not favourable for Norway spruce as a species. Climate change has revealed the weaknesses of this management approach. First the increased precipitation in winter time increases snow loads on trees in high hills and more tree tops break and trees are damaged. It is possible that this phenomena is amplified by the increase in tree hight growth, temperature fluctuations in winter and increase in high wind frequency – all results of climate change. Second the northward shifting climate zones bring new species and in Koli that is European spruce bark beetle. European spruce bark beetle lays eggs in damaged Norway spruce trees and the adult beetles damage all Norway spruce trees. The increased thermal sum of longer and warmer summers makes it possible for the bark beetle to have two generations in stead of one during one summer increasing the population size of European spruce bark beetle and further increasing the damage to Norway spruce dominated forest. Researchers expect that large amounts of Norway spruce trees in Koli national park will be dead in the next decade. Natural solution to prevent large scale forest damage is high diversity of tree species and tree age structure in a forest. If one tree species is damaged others will not, but monoculture hasn’t favoured diversity. Not all dead trees favour European spruce bark beetle but only the recently damaged and dead. Long time dead trees favour European spruce bark beetle predators, but the Koli national park forests have been managed and are not generally old with majority of the forest patches being under 100 years old. European spruce bark beetle outbreak coincides with a period of heat waves and dry summers in late 2010s and early 2020s. This is however a natural dynamic between an insect and a plant but with a climate change and forest management induced twist. The after image shows several dead Norway spruce trees in the foreground. Koli national park, Lieksa Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1932. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2023.
Disappearing national landscape. The view from Koli has been an inspiration for Finnish painters and nationalism since 19th century – before the independence of Finland. With the climate change the views from the Koli hill are becoming more restricted. Notice: in the after image the two Norway spruce from the left and the first from the right have been broken under a snow load. Koli national park, Lieksa Finland. Before: Erkki Mikkola 1932. Kansatieteen kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto. After: Antti Haataja 2023.
The project in brief
These 25 before after images is the first patch of over 150 similar before after images taken in Northern Finland and Norway demonstrating what climate change looks like in nature. With open source intelligence the old images have been backtracked to their exact pinpoint accurate locations to replicate landscapes from literally the same footsteps that explorers in the late 19th and 20th centuries photographed then last wilderness areas of Europe.
More images will be published early next year.
The project will be finalised in summer 2025.
On the right you will see me in the field in summer 2024. Pictured also my expedition companion Vilda, perhaps the first climate scientist dog in the World.
The project has been funded with grants from Kone Foundation, Finnish Cultural Foundation and Alfred Kordelin Foundation.
